The Sounds of Grammar with Betty Azar

(Download MP3, Mirror) For VOA Learning English, this is Everyday Grammar.

Today we have a special guest host. Betty Azar is the most successful writer of grammar textbooks in the world. Generations of English learners will recognize her best-selling book Understanding and Using English Grammar. The famous blue grammar book, now in its fourth edition, is in use at language schools across the world. Ms. Azar also supports research and professional development in the English language teaching field. Today Ms. Azar will offer some advice on how to hear the sounds of grammar.

STUDENT: "English speakers talk too fast! I can't understand what they're saying."

BETTY AZAR: Does that sound familiar? It's a common complaint of English language learners, one I've heard often from my university-level ESL students through the years.

Normal contracted speech, especially in everyday conversational usage, can speed by like a bullet train. It can leave learners feeling a little dazed as they try to catch the meaning.

For most adult learners, reading is, of course, much easier to understand. When understanding English is just between you and the written page, you can go as slowly as you want. You can go back and read words again, perhaps break down the grammar. You can even leisurely look up the meaning of a word.

And at least in writing there are spaces between words. If only that were true in speaking! If only speakers paused briefly between words, it would be so much easier for learners.

Teachers in second language classes often speak slowly and distinctly, as I am doing now. But in the real world, well, it's not going to happen. Or, to say that in normal contracted speech,

Well, i'snotgonnahappen.

Speakers squeeze sounds together, or drop sounds, or say them so softly and quickly that a listener can barely hear them. When you listen to my sentence again, notice that the t is almost completely dropped from it's, and going to becomes gonna.

Well, i'snot gonna happen.

As a teacher, I've often heard students say things like

Bye. I leaving now. I see you tomorrow.

What's missing? The grammar sounds are missing, in this case the m and l sounds for am and will. Listen for them in the corrected sentences:

Bye. I'm leaving now. I'll see you tomorrow.

The m and l sounds are barely said aloud. But a native speaker hears them. Do you? Listen again.

Bye. I'm leaving now. I'll see you tomorrow.

And then, sometimes native speakers drop not only sounds but complete words. Listen to this:

Bye. ‘M leavin' now. See you tomorrow.

If you're saying "Not fair!," you're not the first English learner to feel that way!

Grammar students learn that am, is, are and helping verbs (for example, will, have, would) are often contracted with pronouns in both speaking and writing, as in I'm and I'll. But most students also find it helpful to know that in everyday spoken English these verbs are usually contracted with nouns and question words, too.

Here's a sentence about a man named Tom. Tom is a noun.

In writing, you will see

Don't worry. Tom will be here soon.

In speaking, you will hear

Don't worry. Tom'll be here soon.

Listen for Tom will again:

Don't worry. Tom'll be here soon.

Here's another example of a contraction with a noun:

My book is on the table.

becomes

My book's on the table.

And another example, this time with are:

In writing you will see

My books are on the table.

In speaking you will hear

My books're on the table.

Again:

My books're on the table.

The verb sounds are so quick that it's almost impossible to hear them unless you expect to hear them. Listen again:

My book's on the table.

My books're on the table.

Question words (such as where, when, why) are similarly contracted in speech.

In writing, each word is separate. For example:

Where are the students? Where have they gone?

In spoken English, the question word is contracted with the verb:

Where're the students? Where've they gone?

Again:

Where're the students? Where've they gone?

No wonder it's hard for learners to catch these grammar sounds! If you think English speakers talk really fast, you're right. They do!

Do and did are also often reduced. Listen for do you :

D'you know Mrs. Lee?

Again:

D'you know Mrs. Lee?

Did can be a quick d sound when it's combined with a question word. Listen for where did and what did:

Where'd she go? What'd she do?

Again:

Where'd she go? What'd she do?

Here's another example of shortened spoken English that my students usually enjoy. Two people are talking.

D'ja eat yet?

No, d'joo?

In other words, spoken slowly:

Did you eat yet?

No, did you?

Did is a good example of a function word. A function word gives grammar information. In the sentence Did you eat yet?, did tells us that the speaker is talking about the past and is asking a question. In contrast, eat is a content word. So are words such as Tom, yesterday, lunch. Content words have specific meanings. Function words are the ones that are the hardest to hear in speech. Content words are usually said more clearly and loudly.

Along with helping verbs, other common function words are and, to, the, and a. Let's look at and. And shows the relationship between two nouns: Bob and Tom tells us there are two people.

Like most function words, and is usually reduced:

I had lunch with Bob ‘n Tom yesterday.

A learner could easily think that "Bobbintom" is one word!

To is usually reduced to a slight t sound:

Let's ask Tom to come with us.

sounds like

Let's ask Tom t'come with us.

Again:

Let's ask Tom t'come with us.

The and a can be especially hard for learners to hear. Listen for the and a:

In class yesterday, I asked the teacher a question.

Even if you know the and a are supposed to be there, you have to listen hard to hear them. Listen again:

In class yesterday, I asked the teacher a question.

Native speakers can hear the softer sounds of function words, but it can be very difficult for second language learners to hear them. Knowing some grammar can help. For example, learners are more likely to hear and to say Bye. I'm leaving now. I'llsee you later if they are familiar with the forms and meanings of verb tenses.

If learners don't know what grammar sounds they're supposed to hear, chances are they won't hear them. If they don't hear them, chances are they won't include them in their own speaking and writing. In other words, an awareness of grammar can prepare you to understand what you're hearing, and hearing the sounds of grammar can, in turn, help you use English more accurately.

I'm Betty Azar.

Betty Azar wrote this story as a contributor for VOA Learning English. Adam Brock was the producer. Jill Robbins was the editor.

You can visit Betty Azar's website at www.azargrammar.com.

Betty Azar would like to thank Stacy Hagen for sharing her expertise in the grammar-listening connection.

Learners can find many answers to grammar questions at the Azar Grammar Exchange.

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Words in This Story

contracted – participial adj. shortened

dazed – participial adj. confused and surprised

squeeze – v. push close together

leisurely – adv. in a slow, relaxed way

contraction – gramm. two words combined into one word, e.g., I am = I'm

chances are (that) - idiomatic phrase. it is probable (that)

in turn - idiomatic phrase. as a result

Now it's your turn. Do you have trouble understanding spoken English? What advice do you have for learners?

Are Causatives Making You Crazy?

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This week's Everyday Grammar looks at the grammatical forms called causatives. Basically, causatives express how one actor causes another actor to do something. You know the meaning of make as in "I made a cake." But in the sentence, "My boss made me work late," make has a causative meaning. In other words, my boss forcedme to work late.

What are causatives?

A causative sentence starts with a subject, followed by a causative verb, then an object noun or pronoun, and then the simple form of the verb. Three of the most common causatives in English are make, have, and get.

In the book Understanding and Using English Grammar, Betty Azar explains it this way:

X makes Y do something - that is, X forces Y to do something
X has Y do something - this means X requests that Y do something
X gets Y to do something - this means X persuades Y to do something

How to use make

Let's start with the causative make. As we mentioned before, make means that X forces Y to do something. The meaning of the causative make is stronger than haveand get.

We often hear the causative form of make in love songs. Listen for the causative as Elton John sings.

What do I do to make you love me
What have I got to do to be heard?

Elton knows, however, it is impossible - you cannot make someone love you.

In the movie "As Good as It Gets," actors Jack Nicholson and Helen Hunt play a couple falling in love. Listen to this dramatic compliment from Nicholson's character Melvin Udall.

Nicholson: OK, now, I got a real great compliment for you. And it's true. You make me want to be a better man.
Hunt: That's maybe the best compliment of my life.



Melvin's statement is possible – she made, or caused him to want to change.

How to use have

Now let's look at the causative meaning of have. For example "I had her cut my hair." You can also use have to tell about a request, as in "I had him carry the bag for me." In order words, "I requested that he carry my bag."

A common mistake is using the infinitive verb form with make or have. You should not say, "I made my cat to do a trick." The correct sentence is "I made my cat do a trick." It is easy to get confused, because this sentence is very close to a correct sentence, "I taught my cat to do a trick." This is a case where you just have to remember that make and have, when used as causatives, act differently from other verbs.

How to use get

Finally, let's talk about get. The verb get is used in many ways, but as a causative, it means to persuade someone to do something they may not want to do. For example, "I got my son to clean his room." As a causative get works the same way as make and have The difference is, get is followed by an infinitive with to. Notice the infinitive to eat in this sentence, "We got the kids to eat the broccoli."

While reporting about the new climate plan, a journalist wrote, "President Obama wants Americans to save energy and lower greenhouse gases. To do that he must get them to give up their SUVs." In other words, Obama must persuade Americans to stop driving SUVs.

Know your infinitives

You might have noticed that with both make and have, the following verb is in the base form. There is no to. However, after the causative verb get, the following verb is in the infinitive with to. For example, "I got my boss to give me a raise."

We leave you with the British singer, Sam Brown, singing George Harrison's song, "Horse to Water." Here again we hear about the impossible. Anyone who has tried to make a horse drink knows the horse must want to drink.

You can take a horse to the water
but you can't make him drink
Oh no, oh no, oh no

You can have it all laid out in front
of you but it still don't make you think
Oh no, oh no, oh no

That's Everyday Grammar for today. Until next week, don't let causatives make you crazy.

I'm Jill Robbins.

And I'm Jonathan Evans.

Dr. Jill Robbins wrote this story for Learning English. Ashley Thompson and Adam Brock were the editors.

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Words in This Story

causative – adj. making something happen or exist : causing something

base form – n. the base form of a verb is the simplest form, without a special ending (or suffix). It's the form that appears in dictionary entries.

infinitive form – n. English the infinitive form of a verb is usually used with to (“I asked him to go”) except with modal verbs like should and could (“He should go”) and certain other verbs like see and hear (“I saw him go”).

persuade v. to cause (someone) to do something by asking, arguing, or giving reasons

Now it’s your turn. Write a sentence using make, have, or get as a causative and we’ll give you feedback in the comments section.

Reference

Subject	Causative Verb	Object	Verb Form
Maya	made	the dog	sit down
Anup	had	May	walk the dog.
May	got	Anup	to buy her ice cream.

Everyday Grammar: Beating Problems with Adverbs

(Download MP3, Mirror) For VOA Learning English, this is Everyday Grammar.

This week, we’re going to talk about some common problems with adverbs. Basically, adverbs are words that describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. For example, "I ran quickly to the store." The adverb quickly describes the verb run.

What is an adverb?

If a word is not easy to classify as a noun, verb, or adjective, it is probably an adverb. Some of the most common words in English are adverbs, including up, so, just, then, how, now, also, here, and more.

Adverbs usually describe verbs. They express when, how, where, and why an action is done. Many adverbs are easy to find because they have the –ly ending, such as quickly, surely, and certainly. However, many adverbs do not have the –ly ending.

Adverbs can also describe adjectives. For example, "It is really cold today." In this example, really is an adverb that describes the adjective cold.

Adverbs can describe other adverbs. For example, "I will probably never go back." Here, the adverb probably describes the adverb never.

Where do you put the adverb?

Where do adverbs go in a sentence? Well, it depends.

Some adverbs can go almost anywhere in a sentence. Let us look at the adverbsometimes. It can go at the beginning of the sentence as in, "Sometimes, I walk to work." It can go after the subject: "I sometimes walk to work." Or it can go at the end of the sentence: "I walk to work sometimes."

Other adverbs can only go in the middle of a sentence. The adverb probably is an example. "She will probably leave early."

It is incorrect to say, "Probably she will leave early" or "She will leave early probably." Other such adverbs are never, rarely, seldom, and always. These are called mid-sentence adverbs. They usually go between the subject and the main verb. Different types of adverbs have different sentence positions.

What's the difference between adverbs and adjectives?

Adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Take the sentence, "She is careful." The adjective careful is describing the noun she. But if you said, "She walks carefully," the adverb carefully is describing the verb walk.

Do you think this is hard? Hardly!

Native speakers sometimes confuse adverbs and adjectives.

The words hard and hardly are especially difficult. Hard is both an adjective and an adverb. You can say "The bed was hard," using the adjective, which means it is "very firm." You can also say, "I worked hard," using the adverb, which means "with a lot of effort."

Hardly is an adverb. A long time ago, it meant "in a hard manner," but its meaning has changed. People used to say "not hardly.” Over time, the word “not” disappeared. Since the 1500s, hardly has meant "almost not" or "barely." For example, "I hardly had time to finish the project." This conflicting meaning of hard and hardly has become the basis for jokes.

Listen to cartoon character Homer Simpson playing with the confusion between hard and hardly. In the scene, Homer’s co-workers are replaced with robots.

"So you guys are my new co-workers. So working hard or hardly working? (laugh). I said, ‘Working hard or hardly working?’ ‘Working hard or hardly working? WORKING HARD OR HARDLY WORKING?’ IT’S A SIMPLE QUESTION!"

Homer is asking the robots if they are working hard (working with energy) or hardly working (only working a little). The robots, with their exact reasoning, do not understand the word play in the question.

We will leave you with a song that uses the adverb softly in an unexpected way. Listen to the Fugees’ version of the classic song "Killing Me Softly with His Song."

Strumming my pain with his fingers

Singing my life with his words

Killing me softly with his song

Killing me softly with his song

I’m Jonathan Evans.

And I’m Ashley Thompson.

See this excellent reference on adjectives and adverbs from Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab.

Adam Brock wrote and produced this story. Dr. Jill Robbins edited it.

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Words in This Story

adverb - gramm. term. a word that describes a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence and that is often used to show time, manner, place, or degree

adjective - gramm. term. a word that describes a noun or a pronoun

classify – v. to consider (someone or something) as belonging to a particular group

word play – n. playful or clever use of words

Words Come and Go in English

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For VOA Learning English, this is Everyday Grammar. This week’s Everyday Grammar is by a guest author, David Sullivan. He is Assistant Managing Editor at The Philadelphia Inquirer, and Vice President of the American Copy Editors Society.

Part of the reason that English has grown as a world language is that it adjusts easily to change. Unlike some other languages, there is no "official" English that must be used generation after generation, and there never has been.

However, this means that what one was taught as a child in school may be out of fashion a couple of decades later. Slang is meant to come and go, but when common phrases change, it can make speakers feel "wrong" because they were taught that something else is "right."

One example of this is a term linked to school itself. Today, it is common for people to say that they "graduated high school" or college. The word "graduated" has two common meanings. One is to mark off a series. The easiest way to think of this is to go back to high school chemistry class and remember the tubes used for experiments. They are called "graduated cylinders" because they have lines to show how much liquid to add: 10 milliliters, 20 mL, and so on. The lines make up a series.

The other meaning is closely related. As you move through school, you cross off a series of achievements: grade school, middle school, high school, and college. So, in a way, school itself is "graduated."

So, when people used to speak of getting a diploma, they said they "graduated from college." "To graduate college" would have meant, literally, to mark it off by year – freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior. Similarly, "to graduate to college" would have meant to complete high school and move up to the next level. The use of the preposition was important.

But as happens often in English, when people understand your meaning, smaller words, verb forms, and other parts of speech can disappear. "I graduated college today" is easy to say. Sometimes written language reflects the spoken one, sometimes it does not. In this case, usage has moved rapidly toward "graduated college" as acceptable, if not correct.

This may upset people who were taught that you had to use "from" to be correct. But this is not the first time this phrase has been simplified. It used to be that you said, "I was graduated from college," instead of, "I graduated from college." The change may reflect how we think about the student and the university. Before, the emphasis was on the college: It graduated you. Now, the emphasis is on the student: I graduated.

A search in Google's NGram Viewer shows a sharp fall in the number of times people used "was graduated from" between 1920 and 2000. The phrase "graduate college" increased from 1930 to 2000.

You can’t predict what English will keep and what it will lose. Who could imagine that we would still say we "dial" a phone number when we now push buttons on our cell? Yet we know what it means. And, of course, "dial," like "text," at one time was only a noun, not a verb. You looked at a sundial or the dial of a compass.

People complain that English uses too many odd spellings, like "through" or "doughnut." Many want to change them to simpler spellings. When it comes to speaking, though, modern English speakers get to the point quickly. The question is, why are we complaining?

I’m Pete Musto.

And I'm Jill Robbins.

​David Sullivan, Assistant Managing Editor at The Philadelphia Inquirer and Vice President of the American Copy Editors Society, wrote this story for Learning English. Dr. Jill Robbins was the editor.

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Words in This Story

generation – n. a group of individuals born and living about the same time.

slang - n. words that are not considered part of the standard vocabulary of a language and that are used very informally in speech

graduate - v. to earn a degree or diploma from a school, college, or university

graduated - adj.. marked with lines for measuring

cylinder - n. a shape that has straight sides and two circular ends

emphasis - n. special importance or attention given to something

complain - v. to say or write that you do not like something

Now it’s your turn. Do people complain about changes in your native language? Have you noticed other changes in the way English is used? Let us know in the comments section.

 

Everyday Grammar: When Passive Is Better than Active

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This Everyday Grammar is all about the passive voice. The passive is a verb form in which the subject receives the action of the verb. For example, "I was born on a Saturday."

Most sentences in English follow the subject-verb-object pattern known as the active voice. For example, "I love you." In this example the subject is "I," the verb is "love" and the object is "you." The subject performs the action of the verb.

But sometimes the subject is acted upon, or receives the action of the verb. This is called the passive voice. Imagine that someone stole your wallet, but you do not know who did it. You could say, "My wallet was stolen." In this passive sentence, "my wallet" is the subject, "was stolen" is the verb. There is no direct object -- the wallet did not steal itself. The speaker does not know who stole the wallet.

To form the passive, use a form of the verb "be" followed by a past participle verb form. You can form the passive in several verb tenses, but the simple present and simple past are the most common.

Only transitive verbs can be passive. Intransitive verbs, or verbs that cannot take a direct object, cannot be passive. You cannot say "I was arrived by train" because the intransitive verb arrive cannot be followed by an object.

Most of the time, users should avoid the passive voice. The passive voice can make the speaker or writer seem indirect and weak. Which would you rather hear: "I love you" (active voice) or "You are loved by me" (passive voice)?

But there are several situations when you should use the passive.

The most common reason to use the passive is when the actor is unknown or unimportant. For example, "My visa was processed," and "My shoes were made in India" and "The car was imported from Germany." In these examples, it is not necessary to know exactly who performed the action.

Sometimes speakers use the passive even when they know the person who did the action. In this case, use the word by followed by the actor.

For example, "Great Expectations was written by Charles Dickens." You could also use the active voice: "Charles Dickens wrote Great Expectations." Both are correct. The passive voice emphasizes the book; the active voice emphasizes the writer.

In informal speech, the verb "be" can be replaced with the verb "get." For example, instead of saying "I was hit by a car," you can say, "I got hit by a car." Listen to this famous song by the Eurythmics. You will hear two active and two passive sentences.

Some of them want to use you
Some of them want to get used by you
Some of them want to abuse you
Some of them want to be abused

Notice how singer Annie Lennox used the passive with both "get" and "be."

Another reason to use the passive is to avoid naming the person who performed an action. This is common in politics and law.

At times, powerful people want to admit to a mistake without blaming specific people. In this case, they often use the passive phrase "mistakes were made." Listen to a TV interview with President Obama. A reporter asked the president about a report of abuses by the Central Intelligence Agency. Here is how President Obama replied:

"Any fair-minded person looking at this would say that some terrible mistakes were made."

And here is President George W. Bush using the same phrase. A reporter asked him about the firing of some prosecutors.

"And he's right, mistakes were made. And I’m frankly not happy about them."

You might hear the passive voice in a courtroom. For legal reasons, sometimes lawyers have to use the passive voice to avoid directly blaming a suspect for a crime. Listen to this courtroom dialog from a popular TV drama The Good Wife. A prosecutor is accusing a person of killing a man named Wagner.

Prosecutor: And how did he kill Wagner?
Defense attorney: Objection!
Prosecutor: Withdrawn. How was Wagner killed?

Did you notice how the prosecutor switched his question from the active to the passive voice? Listen one more time.

Prosecutor: And how did he kill Wagner?
Defense attorney: Objection!
Prosecutor: Withdrawn. How was Wagner killed?

At the beginning of the clip, the prosecutor asked, "How did he kill Wagner?" The defense attorney objected to the question. The prosecutor rephrased the question in the passive voice to avoid blaming the suspect. He asked, "How was Wagner killed?"

Overusing the passive voice is major problem in student writing, even for native speakers. Try to keep your passive sentences under 10 percent of your total. Try converting some of your long sentences into simple subject-verb-object sentences.

There is much more to learn about the passive, including the stative passive and participle adjectives. We'll address those topics in a future episode of Everyday Grammar. Until then, sweet dreams!

Sweet dreams are made of this
Who would admire to disagree?
I’ve traveled the world and the seven seas
Everybody's looking for something…

I'm Jonathan Evans.

And I’m Ashley Thompson.

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Words in This Story

active – gramm. of a verb or voice: showing that the subject of a sentence is acted on or affected by the verb

passive – gramm. of a verb: expressing action rather than describing the state of something

transitive – gramm. of a verb: having or taking a direct object

intransitive – gramm. of a verb: not taking or having a direct object

actor - gramm. person or entity performing the action of a verb

Now it’s your turn. In the space below, write an example of sentence that should use the passive.

Everyday Grammar: Advanced Conditionals

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This week, we are going to talk about the past unreal conditional. Past unreal conditionals are often used to express wishes about the past. They often show regret, or sad feelings about something that happened in the past. Here's an example:

If I had studied, I would have passed the test.

In this example, there is an implied wish that the speaker had studied.

A conditional sentence has two parts. The first part is the if clause: "If I had studied." The second part is the result clause: "I would have passed the test."

To form the past unreal conditional, use the past perfect in the if clause. Use hadfollowed by a past participle verb to form the past perfect. In the result clause, use would have followed by the past participle.

Use past unreal conditionals to talk about how you would have acted differently if you had had more information. Basically, if I had known A, I would have done B. Imagine you brought chocolate for a co-worker. You didn't know it at the time, but your co-worker was diabetic. In this situation, you could say, "If I had known you were diabetic, I would not have brought chocolate."

Some Americans use the simple past in the if clause of a past unreal conditional. For example, there's an old song called, "If I knew you were coming, I'd have baked a cake." In formal speech or writing the correct form is, "If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake." There is often a difference between how grammar is taught and how ordinary people use it in conversation.

A conditional sentence can start with the if clause, or the result clause. In the classic American film It's a Wonderful Life, the main character George Bailey is thinking about killing himself. In a moment of sadness, George says that life would have been better if he had never been born. Listen to this dialog between George and his guardian angel, Clarence.

Clarence: So you still think killing yourself would make everyone feel happier?

George: Well I don't know. I guess you're right. I supposed it would've been better if I'd never been born at all.

Clarence: What did you say?

George: I said I wish I had never been born.

Notice how George puts the result clause first when he says, "I suppose it would have been better if I had never been born." George also shortens "would have" to "would've" and "I had" to "I'd." Native speakers often use contractions with the words "had" and "have." That means a past unreal conditional will often have two contractions in it — an extra challenge for English learners.

Sometimes speakers want to express how something that did not happen in the past has an effect in the present. For example, "If I had been born in China, I would speak Chinese." Or "If had quit university, I would not have this job." These are called mixed conditionals. In a mixed conditional, the if clause remains in the past perfect. But the result clause changes to the simple present to emphasis the effect in the present.

To emphasize a feeling of regret, add "only" to the if clause. Listen to this sad song by country singer Reba McEntire.

"If I had only known it was the last walk in the rain,

I'd keep you out for hours in the storm."

This song is an example of a mixed conditional. The if clause "If I had only known it was the last walk in the rain" is in the past perfect. But the result clause, "I'd keep you out for hours in the storm" is in the simple present. The singer is emphasizing her present feelings about something that did not happen in the past.

Past unreal conditionals are complex grammar structures. Make sure you have mastered the past perfect, the present perfect, and irregular verbs before studying advanced conditionals. For a simpler lesson on conditionals, see our previous episode of Everyday Grammar called "Introducing Conditionals."

When you are ready, a good way to practice past unreal conditionals is to ask your English-speaking friends if they have any regrets. You could ask "If you could change something about your past, what would you change?"

We'll leave you now with another song of regret by Brook Benton:

Darling if I had known I'd miss you
like I know since you've gone,
things would have been different
if only I had known

I'm Adam Brock.

And I'm Jill Robbins.
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Words in This Story

regret - v. to feel sad or sorry about (something that you did or did not do)

imply - v .to express (something) in an indirect way or to suggest (something) without saying or showing it plainly

past perfect - gram. the form of the verb that is used in referring to an action that was completed by a particular time in the past

participle - gram. a form of a verb that is used to indicate a past or present action and that can also be used like an adjective

guardian angel - n. an angel believed to watch and protect someone or a helpful or protective person

REFERENCE – Past Unreal and Mixed Conditionals
	If clause	Result clause
Past Unreal	If I had studied, Past perfect	I would have passed the test Perfect conditional Would have + past participle
Mixed Conditional	If I had studied harder at school, Past perfect	I would have a better job now. Would + simple present

Now it's your turn. Do you have any regrets about the past? Use a past unreal conditional or a mixed conditional in the comments section below.

Everyday Grammar: Introducing Conditionals

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In this week's episode of Everyday Grammar, we are going to talk about conditionals. We use conditionals to show that something is true only when something else is true. Conditionals offer endless possibilities for creative and imaginative expression.

Present real conditional

The present real conditional is the most basic kind of conditional. Basically, when A happens, B happens.

Here's an example of a present real conditional:

"If it rains, I bring an umbrella."

Conditionals have two parts: the if clause: "if it rains," and the result clause: "I bring an umbrella." You could also say "I bring an umbrella if it rains."

Poets and songwriters often use conditionals in their work. Listen for the present real conditional in this song by American songwriter Bob Dylan.

"If you see her, say hello. She might be in Tangier"

Notice that the verbs see and say are both in the present tense for the present real conditional.

Present unreal conditional

The next conditional that we're going to talk about is the present unreal conditional. Use the present unreal conditional to talk about what you would do in an unreal, or imaginary situation. If A happened, B would happen. For example, "If I were you, I would take the job." The key word is would; it makes the conditional unreal. Would can only be used in the result clause of the sentence. Here's an example from American singer Johnny Cash.

"If I were a carpenter
And you were a lady
Would you marry me anyway?
Would you have my baby?"

To form a present unreal conditional, use a simple past verb in the if clause. In the result clause, use would followed by a simple present verb.

Use the verb were for all nouns in the if clause of the sentence. For example, "If she were an animal, she would be a cat." In informal speech, people might say, "If she was an animal, she would be a cat." But you should avoid this in formal writing.

Future real conditional

Now let's talk about the future real conditional. If A happens, B will happen. To make a future real conditional, use will in the result clause. For example, "If your plane is late, I will wait in the car." Use the future real conditional to talk about possible situations in the future.

Speakers sometimes use the future real conditional to threaten others. Listen to actor Liam Neeson in the 2013 movie Taken. In this scene of the movie, Neeson's character is on the phone threatening the man who kidnapped his daughter.

"If you let my daughter go now, that'll be the end of it. I will not look for you. I will not pursue you. But if you don't, I will look for you, I will find you, and I will kill you."

This is only a quick introduction to conditionals. In a future episode of Everyday Grammar, we will talk about past and mixed conditionals. Until then, we will leave you with country music stars Johnny Cash and June Carter.

"If you were a carpenter
And I were a lady
I'd marry you anyway
I'd have your baby"
I'm Jonathan Evans.

Adam Brock wrote this story for VOA Learning English. Jill Robbins and Ashley Thompson were the editors.

REFERENCE – Three common conditionals (incomplete list)
	If clause	Result clause
Present Real	If you see her, Simple present	say hello. Simple present
Present Unreal	If I were you, Simple past	I would leave. Would + simple present
Future Real	If your plane is late, Simple present	I will wait for you. Simple future

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Words in This Story

conditional - n. a word, clause, or sentence that shows that something is true or happens only if something else is true or happens

imaginative - adj. having or showing an ability to think of new and interesting ideas :having or showing imagination

basic – adj. forming or relating to the first or easiest part of something

clause - n. grammar : a part of a sentence that has its own subject and verb

tense - n. a form of a verb that is used to show when an action happened

unreal - adj. not real; not true

Now it's your turn. Do you like to use conditionals? If you write a sentence with a conditional in the comments section, we will let you know if it is correct. (Or tell us which kind of conditional is in the previous sentence.)

Problems with Pronouns and Gender

(Download MP3, Mirror) When I was on the train yesterday, I heard someone say this: “Someone left their bag on the train.”

Can you find anything wrong with the sentence?

If you looked in a traditional English grammar book, you would learn that the sentence should be, “Someone left his bag on the train.” The rule is to use the singular pronoun “he” when the gender of a person is not known.

But, if you asked native English speakers if there is something wrong with the sentence, many would probably answer no.

The pronoun “their” is generally plural. The speaker was talking about just one person. However, American English speakers use “their” and “they” as singular pronouns all the time in spoken English. They use it when the gender of a person is not known. They also use it when they do not want to say the gender.

Writers also try to use both “he” and “she” to show they do not discriminate against females. They might also use “he/she” or “him/her” instead of choosing one singular pronoun.

Another approach to this problem is to use a gender-neutral pronoun - a word that does not show gender. One place where these pronouns became popular is in virtualor online communities.

In Sweden, two nursery schools have used the gender-neutral pronoun, “hen” since 2012. The Swedish government started using “hen” this year and added it to the official dictionary.

A student organization at the University of Wisconsin recommends using gender-neutral pronouns like those in the following chart to respect transgender individuals.

Teresa Schmedding is an editor at the Daily Herald Media Group and a member of the American Copy Editors Society (ACES.)

At a recent meeting of the organization in Pittsburgh, she says some editors discussed the use of the pronoun “they.” Ms. Schmedding says some members were unhappy with the use of “his” or “her” in the stories.

"Language is a constantly evolving thing and we need to evolve. … It has become so common, in our language now, that people frequently use the singular ‘they’ all the time. My question is, what’s the harm?”

Writers look to books like “The Chicago Manual of Style” for the rules. This book says to use a plural noun, if possible, and to avoid using the singular pronouns "him" or "her" when the gender of the subject is not stated.

For example, the sentence

“Each student brought his or her book to class”

would change to

“The students brought their books to class.”

Ms. Schmedding says the most important thing for writers is to make the language easy to understand.

“The overriding issue is clarity. We want people to understand what we are saying. So if people already understand when you use the singular they what you mean, why make up a new word?”

A look back at the history of English shows that great writers used they as a singular pronoun. Chaucer, writing in the 14^th century, used it, as did Shakespeare, Jane Austen, and George Bernard Shaw.

Then in the late 18^th century, grammar writers said they should not be used as a singular pronoun.

Today, many English speakers are saying that, “if everyone uses it, they must be right.”

I’m Jonathan Evans.

Dr. Jill Robbins wrote this story for Learning English. Ashley Thompson was the editor.

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Words in This Story

singular - adj. showing or indicating no more than one thing

gender - n. the state of being male or female; sex

discriminate - v. to unfairly treat a person or group of people differently from other people or groups

gender-neutral - adj. a word or expression that cannot be taken to refer to one gender only

virtual - adj. existing or occurring on computers or on the Internet

transgender - adj. of or relating to people who have a sexual identity that is not clearly male or clearly female

copy editor – n. a person whose job is to prepare a book, newspaper, etc., for printing by making sure the words are correct

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Here is a chart showing the commonly accepted pronouns and some of the new gender-neutral pronouns:

	Subject	Object	Possessive Adjective	Possessive Pronoun	Reflexive
Masculine	he laughs	I hugged him	his heart warmed	that is his	he loves himself
Feminine	she laughs	I hugged her	her heart warmed	that is hers	she loves herself
Singular 'they'	they laugh	I hugged them	their heart warmed	that is theirs	they love themself
LamdaMOO "spivak" (1991)	e laughs	I hugged em	eir heart warmed	that is eirs	e loves emself
Ze (or zie) and hir	Ze laughs ("zee")	I hugged hir ("heer")	hir heart warmed "heer"	that is hirs ("heers")	Ze loves hirself ("heerself")

* from The Gender Neutral Pronoun Blog

Now it’s your turn. Do you think your language treats males and females differently? Are there any suggestions for changing the language?

Everyday Grammar: Gerunds and Infinitives

(Download MP3, Mirror) Welcome to another episode of Everyday Grammar on VOA Learning English.

English learners have difficulty with gerunds and infinitives. A gerund is the –ingform of a verb that functions the same as a noun. For example, “Running is fun.” In this sentence, “running” is the gerund. It acts just like a noun.

The infinitive form of a verb appears either as the basic form (with no marking) or with the word “to.” For example, you can say “I might run to the store” or “I like to run.” In this sentence, “to run” is the infinitive.

It is difficult for English learners to know whether to use a gerund or an infinitive after a verb.

Here’s an example. Which sentence is correct?

Sentence one: I suggested going to dinner.

Sentence two: I suggested to go to dinner.

Sentence one, with the gerund, is correct. “I suggested going to dinner.” Why? You can only use a gerund after the verb “suggest.”

Let’s take the word “like.” You can say “I like" running” or “I like to run.” Both sentences have the same meaning. You can use either a gerund or an infinitive after “like.” Now let’s try “enjoy.” We can say, “I enjoy running.” But we cannot say, “I enjoy to run.” Why? Only a gerund can follow the verb “enjoy.”

Are you confused yet? You’re not alone. Gerunds and infinitives confuse even very advanced English learners.

Basically, some verbs are followed by gerunds, some verbs are followed by infinitives, and some verbs can be followed by gerunds or infinitives. Native speakers do not think about the difference. But English learners have to memorize the hundreds of different verb combinations.

Here are a few tips.

Tip number one: you almost always find a gerund after a preposition. For example, “She is afraid of flying.” In this sentence “of” is the preposition and “flying” is the gerund. You cannot say “She is afraid of to fly.” An infinitive cannot be the object of a preposition, only a gerund can. You could say, “She is afraid to fly,” but in this sentence, the preposition “of” is gone.

Tip number two: When you are talking about an activity, you usually use a gerund. For example, “I stopped smoking.” You can describe many activities by using “go” before a gerund. “Let’s go shopping,” or “We went skiing.”

Let’s see how much you know. Try to complete these sentences using the verb “study.” Ready? I’ll read the first part of the sentence and you finish it.

I enjoy … (studying)

I considered … (studying)

I managed … (to study)

I hope … (to study)

I suggested … (studying)

I like… … (studying) or … (to study)

This is only a simple introduction to a complicated grammar topic.

There is no quick and easy way to learn gerunds and infinitives. It takes years of practice and familiarity with the English language. Next time you read or listen to a VOA Learning English story, pay attention to use of gerunds and infinitives. Over time, you will begin to hear the right verb combination.

Below is a helpful reference list for using gerunds and infinitives.

I’m Jonathan Evans.

And I’m Ashley Thompson.

Adam Brock wrote this story for Learning English. Dr. Jill Robbins was the editor.

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Words in This Story

gerund - n. an English noun formed from a verb by adding -ing

infinitive - n. the basic form of a verb; usually used with to except with modal verbs like should and could and certain other verbs like see and hear

preposition - n. a word or group of words that is used with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, location, or time, or to introduce an object

Now it’s your turn. In the comment section, write one sentence that uses a verb followed by a gerund or an infinitive. We’ll respond with feedback about your usage.

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Only a gerund can follow these verbs:

admit, advise, avoid, be used to, can’t help, can’t stand, consider, deny, discuss, dislike, end up, enjoy, feel like, finish, forget, get used to, give up, go on, have difficulty, have problems, have trouble, imagine, it’s no use, it’s worthwhile, keep, look forward to, mention, mind, miss, recommend, remember, quit, spend time, stop, suggest, understand, waste time, work at

Either a gerund or an infinitive can follow these verbs, and there is no change in meaning

begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, start

Either a gerund or an infinitive can follow these verbs, but the meaning may change:

forget, remember, stop

An infinitive follows these verbs:

afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, care, decide, demand, expect, fail, forget, hope, learn, manage, mean, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, remember, seem, stop, volunteer, wait, want, wish

A noun or pronoun and an infinitive follow these verbs

advise, allow, ask, cause, challenge, command, convince, expect, forbid, force, hire, instruct, invite, order, pay, permit, program, remind, teach, tell, urge, want, warn

Riding Shotgun: Not As Dangerous As It Sounds

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And now Words and Their Stories from VOA Learning English!

The term Wild West describes life in what is now the western United States way back in the 1800s. Life there was often unpredictable and even, well, wild!

Native Americans already controlled land that white settlers wanted to occupy. So it could be a very dangerous place – for everyone! Many people carried guns.

Life in the Wild West has given us many expressions that will still use today. Some involve things that were widely used back then, like horses and guns.

Today we talk about one of them: a shotgun.

Shotguns are designed to fire a large number of small metal balls or pellets. They travel down a long barrel before they fly out of the gun. A shotgun can hit many objects in a wide area. So, this weapon is good for hunting small moving targets, such as squirrels and birds.

This also made the shotgun good for protection. And that is just how settlers used shotguns during this period in American history.

At the time, people traveled in stagecoaches and covered wagons, often through dangerous areas. Next to the driver in these vehicles sat a person holding a shotgun. That person’s job was to guard against robbers or angry Native Americans.

These days, riding shotgun still means you are sitting next to a driver, but without a shotgun.

In a vehicle, the seat next to the driver is roomy. Sitting there, you can see the world around you better than people in the back seat. It is easier to talk to the driver. And you have access to the music player and climate controls.

So, to guarantee that you get this good seat before a car ride, you can call shotgun. In other words, you are claiming, or calling dibs on, the seat next to the driver.

This is a fairly common expression in American English. But it is very casual and somewhat humorous. So, we usually say it only to our very good friends.

I would not, for example, call shotgun on a drive with the head of my office or my mother’s friend, who is probably 80 years old. That would be a sign of bad behavior. The older adult should get to choose where they sit.

I would even think twice before calling shotgun with a new group of friends. It could sound childish. Instead I might say, “Would you mind if I sit up front?”
And that brings us to the end of this Words and Their Stories. Until next time, I’m Anna Matteo.


I'll be riding shotgun underneath the hot sun
Feeling like a someone
I'll be riding shotgun underneath the hot sun
Feeling like a someone

Anna Matteo wrote this story for VOA Learning English. George Grow was the editor. The song at the end is George Ezra singing "Shotgun."

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Words in This Story

pellet – n. a small metal object that is shot from a gun

access – n. the right or ability to approach, enter, or use

casual – adj. designed for or permitting ordinary dress, behavior, etc. : not formal